Nature and the City: changes for the first urban century in the United States
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24197/ciudades.12.2009.13-31Palabras clave:
ecología urbana, planificación regional, arquitectura del paisaje, urbanismo sostenible, resilienciaResumen
En este artículo panorámico se muestra cómo se está abordando hoy la relación entre ciudad y naturaleza entre los estudiosos y profesionales de Estados Unidos. En el contexto de una “ciudad sin límites” se ordenan las ideas en torno a cuatro conceptos: ecología urbana, sostenibilidad, nuevo regionalismo y urbanismo del paisaje, asociados a una comprensión más abierta de los ecosistemas urbanos. La “ecología urbana” emerge como una aproximación interdisciplinar para comprender las “reglas, patrones, procesos y resultados” asociados a los paisajes urbanizados. Desde el liderazgo de algunas ciudades como Nueva York, Chicago, Seattle y Portland, se han desarrollado esfuerzos por mejorar lo elementos de la naturaleza en la ciudad desde principios de sostenibilidad. La nueva perspectiva regionalista se manifiesta en los esfuerzos asociados al concepto de mega-región y de megalópolis: una nueva unidad de análisis geográfico y una nueva escala para la planificación. Este nuevo regionalismo representa un movimiento liderado por arquitectos y urbanistas implicando a geógrafos, demógrafos y legisladores. Finalmente, el “paisajismo urbano” es un enfoque más proyectual. Frente a la naturaleza en la ciudad comenzamos a comprender la ecología de las ciudades: los sistemas urbanos son ecosistemas. Como resultado la naturaleza no puede ya utilizarse como algo decorativo sino como algo esencial que pertenece a la salud y a la resiliencia de los asentamientos humanos.
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ALBERTI, Marina (2008): Advances in Urban Ecology. Springer Science. New York.
ALBERTI, Marina & MARZLUFF, John M. (2004): “Ecological Resilience in Urban Ecosystems: Linking Urban Patterns to Human and Ecological Functions”, en Urban Ecosystems núm. 7, pp. 241-265.
ALBERTI, Marina & WADDELL, Paul (2000): “An Integrated Urban Development and Ecological Assessment Model”, en Integrated Assessment núm 1, pp. 215-227.
ALMY, Dean J. (2007): On Landscape Urbanism Center núm 14. Center for American Architecture and Design, University of Texas at Austin.
BABBITT, Bruce (2005): Cities in the Wilderness: A New Vision for Land Use in America. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
BERKE, Philip R. (2008): The Evolution of Green Community Planning, Scholarship, and Practice. Journal of the American Planning Association núm. 74 (4), pp. 393-407.
BIRCH, Eugenie L. & WACHTER, Susan M. (2008): Growing Greener Cities: Urban Sustainability in the Twenty-First Century. University of Pennsylvania Press. Philadelphia.
BLACK, Sinclair, STEINER, Frederick, BALLAS, Marisa & GIPSON, Jeff (2008): Emergent Urbanism, Evolution in Urban Form. School of Architecture, University of Texas at Austin and Black + Vernooy with the Congress for the New Urbanism. Austin.
BURDETT, Ricky & SUDJIC, Deyan (2007): The Endless City. Phaidon Press. London.
BURDETT, Ricky & ICHIOKA Sarah (2006): Cities: People, Society, Architecture (10th International Architecture Exhibition – Venice Biennale). Fondazione La Biennale, Marsilio Editori. Venice.
BUSQUETS, Joan (2006): Cities X Lines. Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. Cambridge.
CADENASSO, Mary L., PICKETT, Steward T. A., WEATHERS, Kathleen C., & JONES Clive (2003): “A Framework for a Theory of Ecological Boundaries” en BioScience núm. 53 (8, August) pp. 750-758.
CADENASSO, Mary L. & PICKETT, Steward T. A. (2008): “Urban Principles for Ecological Landscape Design and Management: Scientific Fundamentals”, en Cities and the Environment núm. 2, pp. 4-16.
CALTHORPE, Peter (1993): The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream. Princeton Architectural Press. New York.
CALTHORPE, Peter & FULTON, William (2001): The Regional City. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
CORNER, James & MACLEAN Alex (1996): Taking Measures Across the American Landscape. Yale University Press. New Haven, Connecticut.
DAVIS, Mike (2006): Planet of Slums. Verso. Brooklyn.
DOOLING, S. (2008): Ecological Gentrification: Re-negotiating Justice in the City, en Critical Planning núm. 1. pp. 51-58.
ELLIN, Nan (2006): Integral Urbanism. Routledge. New York.
FELSON, Alexander J. & PICKETT Steward T. A. (2005): “Designed Experiments: New Approaches to Studying Urban Ecosystems”, en Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment núm. 3 (10), pp. 549-556.
FIELD OPERATIONS, DILLER SCOFIDIO + RENFRO, FRIENDS OF THE HIGH LINE, AND CITY OF NEW YORK (2008): Designing the High Line: Gansevoort Street to 30th Street. New York: Friends of the High Line.
FORMAN, Richard T. T. (1995): Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge University. Cambridge, New York.
FORMAN, Richard & GODRON, Michel (1986): Landscape Ecology. John Wiley and Sons. New York.
GAMMAGE, Grady; STUART HALL, JR, John; LANG, Robert E.; MELNICK, Rob; & WELCH, Nancy (2008): Megapolitan: Arizona’s Sun Corridor. Morrison Institute for Public Policy, Arizona State University, Tempe.
GOTTMAN, Jean (1961): Megalopolis: The Urbanized North-eastern Seaboard of the United States. Twentieth Century Fund. New York.
GRIMM, N. B.; GROVE, J. M.; REDMAN, C. L.; & PICKETT, S. T. A. (2000): “Integrated approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological systems”, en BioScience núm. 50, pp. 571-584.
GRIMM, N. B., FAETH, S. H.; GOLUBIEWSKI, N. E.; REDMAN, C. R.; WU, J.; BAI, X. &. BRIGGS, J. M. (2008): “Global change and the ecology of cities”, en Science núm. 319, pp. 756-760.
GRIMM, N. B. & REDMAN, C. L. (2004): “Approaches to the study of urban ecosystems: the case of central Arizona-Phoenix”, en Urban Ecosystems num. 7, pp. 199-213.
LANG, Robert E. & DHAVALE Dawn. (2005): “Beyond Megalopolis: Exploring America’s New ‘Megapolitan’ Geography”, Metropolitan Institute at Virginia Tech. Alexandria, Virginia.
LANG, Robert E. & KNOX, Paul K. (2008): “The New Metropolis: Rethinking Megalopolis”, en Regional Studies núm. 41 (1), pp. 1-14.
LANG, Robert E. & LEFURGY, Jennifer B. (2007): Boomburbs: The Rise of America’s Accidental Cities. The Brookings Institution. Washington, D.C.
LANG, Robert E. & NELSON, Arthur C. (2007a): “Beyond the Metroplex: Examining Commuter Patterns at the ‘Megapolitan’ Scale”. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
LANG, Robert E. & NELSON, Arthur C. (2007b): “The Rise of the Megapolitans”, en Planning 73 (1), pp. 7-12.
LANG, Robert E.; SARZYNSKI, Andrea & MURO Mark (2008): Mountain Megas. Metropolitan Policy Program, Brookings Institution. Washington, D.C.
LAYZER, Judith A. (2008): Natural Experiments: Ecosystem-Based Management and the Environment. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
LEWIS, D. B., GRIMM, N. B., HARMS, T. K. & SCHADE, J. D. (2007): “Subsystems, flowpaths, and the spatial variability of nitrogen in a fluvial ecosystem”, en Landscape Ecology núm 22, pp. 911-924.
LINCOLN INSTITUTE OF LAND POLICY, REGIONAL PLAN ASSOCIATION, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SCHOOL OF DESIGN (2004): Toward an American Spatial Development Perspective. Department of City and Regional Planning, University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia.
LYLE, John (1994): Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
MARZLUFF, John M., SHULENBERGER, Eric, ENDLICHER, Wilfried, ALBERTI, Marina, BRADLEY, Gordon, RYAN, Clare, ZUMBRUNNEN, Craig, & SIMON, Ute (2008): Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature. Springer Science. New York.
MARZLUFF, J., WITHEY, J., WHITTAKER, K., OLEYAR, D., UNFRIED, T. ,RULLMAN, S., & DELAP, J. (2007): “Consequences of Habitat Utilization by Nest Predators and Breeding Songbirds Across Multiple Scales in an Urbanizing Landscape”, en Condor núm. 109 (3), pp. 516-534 .
MCHARG, Ian (1969): Design with Nature. Garden City, Natural History Press/Doubleday. New York.
MCHARG, Ian (1996): A Quest for Life: An Autobiography. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
MCHARG, Ian & STEINER, Frederick (1998): To Heal the Earth: The Selected Writings of Ian McHarg. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
NELSON, Arthur C. (2004): Toward a New Metropolis: The Opportunity to Rebuild America. The Brookings Institution. Washington, D.C.
PEIRCE, Neal R. & W. JOHNSON, Curtis (with PETERS, Farley M.). (2008): Century of the City: No Time to Lose. The Rockefeller Foundations. New York.
PETERS, D. P. C., GROFFMAN, P. M., NADELHOFFER, K. J., GRIMM, N. B., COLLINS, S. L., MICHENER, W. K. & HUSTON. M. A. (2008): “Living in an increasingly connected world: a framework for continental-scale environmental science”, en Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment núm. 6, pp. 229-237.
PICKETT, Steward T. A., BURCH, William R., SHAWN JR., DALTON, E. ,FORESMAN, Timothy W., GROVE, J. Morgan, & ROWNTREE, Rowan (1997): “A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Human Ecosystems in Urban Areas”, en Urban Ecosystems núm. 1 (4), pp. 185-199.
PICKETT, Steward T. A., BELT, Kenneth T., GALVIN, Michael F., GROFFMAN, J. MORGAN GROVE, DONALD C. OUTEN, RICHARD V. POUYAT, Peter M., STACK, William P., & CADENASSO, Mary L. (2007): “Watersheds in Baltimore, Maryland: Understanding and Application of Integrated Ecological and Social Processes”, en Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education núm. 136 (June), pp. 44-55.
PICKETT, Steward T. A. & CADENASSO, Mary L. (2003): “Integrating the Ecological, Socioeconomic, and Planning Realms: Insights from the Baltimore Ecosystem Study,” in Laura Musacchio, Jiango Wu, and Thara Johnson, editors, Pattern, Process, Scale, and Hierarchy: Advancing Interdisciplinary Collaboration for Creating Sustainable Urban Landscape and Communities. Arizona State University. Tempe.
REED, Chris (2007): StossLU. C3 Publishing Co. Seoul.
REGIONAL PLAN ASSOCIATION (2006): “America 2050: A Prospectus.” New York.
ROBINSON, Lin, NOWELL, Joshua P., &. MARZLUFF, John M. (2005): “Twenty-five Years of Sprawl in the Seattle Region: Growth Management Responses and Implications for Conservation”, en Landscape and Urban Planning núm. 71 (1), pp. 51-72.
SAHA, Devashree & PATERSON, Robert G. (2008): “Local Government Efforts to Promote the ‘Three E’s’ of Sustainable Development”, en Journal of Planning Education and Research núm. 28, pp. 21-37.
STEINER, Frederick (2006): The Essential Ian McHarg: Writings on Design with Nature. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
STEINER, Frederick (2008a): “Setting Our Sights Higher and Wider”, en Urban Land Green núm. 3 (1, Spring), pp. 76-79.
STEINER, Frederick (2008b): “The Ghost of Ian McHarg”, en Log núm. 13/14, pp. 147-151.
TRUST FOR PUBLIC LAND (2006): Travis County Greenprint for Growth. Trust for Public Land. Austin, Texas.
UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (1987): Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
WALDHEIM, Charles (2006): The Landscape Urbanism Reader. Princeton Architectural Press. New York.
WILSON, E. O. (1998): Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. Alfred A. Knopf. New York.
ALBERTI, Marina & MARZLUFF, John M. (2004): “Ecological Resilience in Urban Ecosystems: Linking Urban Patterns to Human and Ecological Functions”, en Urban Ecosystems núm. 7, pp. 241-265.
ALBERTI, Marina & WADDELL, Paul (2000): “An Integrated Urban Development and Ecological Assessment Model”, en Integrated Assessment núm 1, pp. 215-227.
ALMY, Dean J. (2007): On Landscape Urbanism Center núm 14. Center for American Architecture and Design, University of Texas at Austin.
BABBITT, Bruce (2005): Cities in the Wilderness: A New Vision for Land Use in America. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
BERKE, Philip R. (2008): The Evolution of Green Community Planning, Scholarship, and Practice. Journal of the American Planning Association núm. 74 (4), pp. 393-407.
BIRCH, Eugenie L. & WACHTER, Susan M. (2008): Growing Greener Cities: Urban Sustainability in the Twenty-First Century. University of Pennsylvania Press. Philadelphia.
BLACK, Sinclair, STEINER, Frederick, BALLAS, Marisa & GIPSON, Jeff (2008): Emergent Urbanism, Evolution in Urban Form. School of Architecture, University of Texas at Austin and Black + Vernooy with the Congress for the New Urbanism. Austin.
BURDETT, Ricky & SUDJIC, Deyan (2007): The Endless City. Phaidon Press. London.
BURDETT, Ricky & ICHIOKA Sarah (2006): Cities: People, Society, Architecture (10th International Architecture Exhibition – Venice Biennale). Fondazione La Biennale, Marsilio Editori. Venice.
BUSQUETS, Joan (2006): Cities X Lines. Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. Cambridge.
CADENASSO, Mary L., PICKETT, Steward T. A., WEATHERS, Kathleen C., & JONES Clive (2003): “A Framework for a Theory of Ecological Boundaries” en BioScience núm. 53 (8, August) pp. 750-758.
CADENASSO, Mary L. & PICKETT, Steward T. A. (2008): “Urban Principles for Ecological Landscape Design and Management: Scientific Fundamentals”, en Cities and the Environment núm. 2, pp. 4-16.
CALTHORPE, Peter (1993): The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream. Princeton Architectural Press. New York.
CALTHORPE, Peter & FULTON, William (2001): The Regional City. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
CORNER, James & MACLEAN Alex (1996): Taking Measures Across the American Landscape. Yale University Press. New Haven, Connecticut.
DAVIS, Mike (2006): Planet of Slums. Verso. Brooklyn.
DOOLING, S. (2008): Ecological Gentrification: Re-negotiating Justice in the City, en Critical Planning núm. 1. pp. 51-58.
ELLIN, Nan (2006): Integral Urbanism. Routledge. New York.
FELSON, Alexander J. & PICKETT Steward T. A. (2005): “Designed Experiments: New Approaches to Studying Urban Ecosystems”, en Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment núm. 3 (10), pp. 549-556.
FIELD OPERATIONS, DILLER SCOFIDIO + RENFRO, FRIENDS OF THE HIGH LINE, AND CITY OF NEW YORK (2008): Designing the High Line: Gansevoort Street to 30th Street. New York: Friends of the High Line.
FORMAN, Richard T. T. (1995): Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge University. Cambridge, New York.
FORMAN, Richard & GODRON, Michel (1986): Landscape Ecology. John Wiley and Sons. New York.
GAMMAGE, Grady; STUART HALL, JR, John; LANG, Robert E.; MELNICK, Rob; & WELCH, Nancy (2008): Megapolitan: Arizona’s Sun Corridor. Morrison Institute for Public Policy, Arizona State University, Tempe.
GOTTMAN, Jean (1961): Megalopolis: The Urbanized North-eastern Seaboard of the United States. Twentieth Century Fund. New York.
GRIMM, N. B.; GROVE, J. M.; REDMAN, C. L.; & PICKETT, S. T. A. (2000): “Integrated approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological systems”, en BioScience núm. 50, pp. 571-584.
GRIMM, N. B., FAETH, S. H.; GOLUBIEWSKI, N. E.; REDMAN, C. R.; WU, J.; BAI, X. &. BRIGGS, J. M. (2008): “Global change and the ecology of cities”, en Science núm. 319, pp. 756-760.
GRIMM, N. B. & REDMAN, C. L. (2004): “Approaches to the study of urban ecosystems: the case of central Arizona-Phoenix”, en Urban Ecosystems num. 7, pp. 199-213.
LANG, Robert E. & DHAVALE Dawn. (2005): “Beyond Megalopolis: Exploring America’s New ‘Megapolitan’ Geography”, Metropolitan Institute at Virginia Tech. Alexandria, Virginia.
LANG, Robert E. & KNOX, Paul K. (2008): “The New Metropolis: Rethinking Megalopolis”, en Regional Studies núm. 41 (1), pp. 1-14.
LANG, Robert E. & LEFURGY, Jennifer B. (2007): Boomburbs: The Rise of America’s Accidental Cities. The Brookings Institution. Washington, D.C.
LANG, Robert E. & NELSON, Arthur C. (2007a): “Beyond the Metroplex: Examining Commuter Patterns at the ‘Megapolitan’ Scale”. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
LANG, Robert E. & NELSON, Arthur C. (2007b): “The Rise of the Megapolitans”, en Planning 73 (1), pp. 7-12.
LANG, Robert E.; SARZYNSKI, Andrea & MURO Mark (2008): Mountain Megas. Metropolitan Policy Program, Brookings Institution. Washington, D.C.
LAYZER, Judith A. (2008): Natural Experiments: Ecosystem-Based Management and the Environment. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
LEWIS, D. B., GRIMM, N. B., HARMS, T. K. & SCHADE, J. D. (2007): “Subsystems, flowpaths, and the spatial variability of nitrogen in a fluvial ecosystem”, en Landscape Ecology núm 22, pp. 911-924.
LINCOLN INSTITUTE OF LAND POLICY, REGIONAL PLAN ASSOCIATION, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SCHOOL OF DESIGN (2004): Toward an American Spatial Development Perspective. Department of City and Regional Planning, University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia.
LYLE, John (1994): Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
MARZLUFF, John M., SHULENBERGER, Eric, ENDLICHER, Wilfried, ALBERTI, Marina, BRADLEY, Gordon, RYAN, Clare, ZUMBRUNNEN, Craig, & SIMON, Ute (2008): Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature. Springer Science. New York.
MARZLUFF, J., WITHEY, J., WHITTAKER, K., OLEYAR, D., UNFRIED, T. ,RULLMAN, S., & DELAP, J. (2007): “Consequences of Habitat Utilization by Nest Predators and Breeding Songbirds Across Multiple Scales in an Urbanizing Landscape”, en Condor núm. 109 (3), pp. 516-534 .
MCHARG, Ian (1969): Design with Nature. Garden City, Natural History Press/Doubleday. New York.
MCHARG, Ian (1996): A Quest for Life: An Autobiography. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
MCHARG, Ian & STEINER, Frederick (1998): To Heal the Earth: The Selected Writings of Ian McHarg. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
NELSON, Arthur C. (2004): Toward a New Metropolis: The Opportunity to Rebuild America. The Brookings Institution. Washington, D.C.
PEIRCE, Neal R. & W. JOHNSON, Curtis (with PETERS, Farley M.). (2008): Century of the City: No Time to Lose. The Rockefeller Foundations. New York.
PETERS, D. P. C., GROFFMAN, P. M., NADELHOFFER, K. J., GRIMM, N. B., COLLINS, S. L., MICHENER, W. K. & HUSTON. M. A. (2008): “Living in an increasingly connected world: a framework for continental-scale environmental science”, en Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment núm. 6, pp. 229-237.
PICKETT, Steward T. A., BURCH, William R., SHAWN JR., DALTON, E. ,FORESMAN, Timothy W., GROVE, J. Morgan, & ROWNTREE, Rowan (1997): “A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Human Ecosystems in Urban Areas”, en Urban Ecosystems núm. 1 (4), pp. 185-199.
PICKETT, Steward T. A., BELT, Kenneth T., GALVIN, Michael F., GROFFMAN, J. MORGAN GROVE, DONALD C. OUTEN, RICHARD V. POUYAT, Peter M., STACK, William P., & CADENASSO, Mary L. (2007): “Watersheds in Baltimore, Maryland: Understanding and Application of Integrated Ecological and Social Processes”, en Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education núm. 136 (June), pp. 44-55.
PICKETT, Steward T. A. & CADENASSO, Mary L. (2003): “Integrating the Ecological, Socioeconomic, and Planning Realms: Insights from the Baltimore Ecosystem Study,” in Laura Musacchio, Jiango Wu, and Thara Johnson, editors, Pattern, Process, Scale, and Hierarchy: Advancing Interdisciplinary Collaboration for Creating Sustainable Urban Landscape and Communities. Arizona State University. Tempe.
REED, Chris (2007): StossLU. C3 Publishing Co. Seoul.
REGIONAL PLAN ASSOCIATION (2006): “America 2050: A Prospectus.” New York.
ROBINSON, Lin, NOWELL, Joshua P., &. MARZLUFF, John M. (2005): “Twenty-five Years of Sprawl in the Seattle Region: Growth Management Responses and Implications for Conservation”, en Landscape and Urban Planning núm. 71 (1), pp. 51-72.
SAHA, Devashree & PATERSON, Robert G. (2008): “Local Government Efforts to Promote the ‘Three E’s’ of Sustainable Development”, en Journal of Planning Education and Research núm. 28, pp. 21-37.
STEINER, Frederick (2006): The Essential Ian McHarg: Writings on Design with Nature. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
STEINER, Frederick (2008a): “Setting Our Sights Higher and Wider”, en Urban Land Green núm. 3 (1, Spring), pp. 76-79.
STEINER, Frederick (2008b): “The Ghost of Ian McHarg”, en Log núm. 13/14, pp. 147-151.
TRUST FOR PUBLIC LAND (2006): Travis County Greenprint for Growth. Trust for Public Land. Austin, Texas.
UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (1987): Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
WALDHEIM, Charles (2006): The Landscape Urbanism Reader. Princeton Architectural Press. New York.
WILSON, E. O. (1998): Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. Alfred A. Knopf. New York.
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01/12/2017
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Steiner, F. R. (2017). Nature and the City: changes for the first urban century in the United States. Ciudades, (12), 13–31. https://doi.org/10.24197/ciudades.12.2009.13-31
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