The Stigmatisation of Religion in Japan and the Response to It
Resumen
The concept of stigma is used to analyse religion and social identity in Japan. After the Pacific War, religion in Japan and the social identity it provided can be said to have been stigmatised. Today, religion is still highly visible and still used as a mark of social identity and, thus, the effects of stigmatisation might still seem to be problematic. It is shown that in order to overcome this stigma a discourse has emerged. The discourse is associated with a typical reaction to the kind of threat to social identity and esteem that stigma can bring. This is made sense of through a conceptualisation of stigma incorporating the work of Link and Phelan, Nelson Goodman, and Tajfel and Turner. The stigmatisation and destigmatisation of religion and analytic tools to investigate it are particularly relevant today given the demonisation of Islam.
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Atkinson, R. (2015). Viewpoint: Is it time to stop using the word "disability"? BBC: Ouch Blog. Retrieved 16 March 2016 from http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-ouch-34385738
BBC News. (1 February, 2013). AKB48 Pop Stars Shaved Head After Breaking Band Rules. Retrieved 15 January 2016 from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-21299324
Chamberlain, B. H. (2013). The Invention of a New Religion. Retrieved 23 February 2016 from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2510/2510-h/2510-h.htm
Cristi, M. & Dawson, L. L. (2007). Civil religion in America and in global context. In J. A. Beckford and N. I. Demerath, (Eds.). The SAGE Handbook of the Sociology of Religion, (pp. 267-294). London: Sage Publications.
Crocker, J. & Major, B. (1989). Social Stigma and Self-Esteem: The Self Protective Properties of Stigma. Psychological Review. Vol. 96, No. 4, 608-630.
Dower, J. W. 2000. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. W. W. Norton and Company.
Duke, B. C. (2009). The History of Modern Japanese Education: Constructing the National School System, 1872-1890. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Editorial Staff (Ed.). (1965). Reminiscences of Religion in Postwar Japan. Contemporary Religions in Japan, Vol VI, No. 3. Retrieved 15 March 2016 from https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/3153
Elgin, C. (1983). With Reference to Reference. Indiana and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.
Es Discovery. (2011). Shintō to jinja no shisetsu. 神道と神社の施設. [Institutions of Shintō and Shrines]. Retrieved 15 December 2015 from http://www5f.biglobe.ne.jp/~mind/vision/es003/jshrine001.html
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GHK (December 1945). The Shintō Directive. Retrieved 4 January 2016 from http://www.trinity.edu/rnadeau/Asian%20Religions/Lecture%20Notes/Shinto%20and%20Zen/Shinto%20state.htm
Goodman, N. (1976). Languages of Art. Indiana and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. London: Penguin.
Ives. C. (2009). Imperial-Way Zen: Ichikawa Hakugen's Critique and Lingering Questions for Buddhist Ethics. Hawaii: Hawaii University Press.
Ise Shrine. (2011). Ise City Travel Guide. Retrieved 08 March 2016 from http://www.ise-kanko.jp/english/index.html
Izumo-ooyashiro Murasakino Kyokai. (2015). Shintō ni oshe wa nai no ka? 神道に教えはないか？[Aren't there Shintō teachings?] Retrieved 1 January 2016 from www.izumo-murasakino.jp/shinto-001.html
Japan. (1890). Imperial Rescript on Education 1890. In T. de Bary, T., D. Keene, & R. Tsunoda, (Eds.), Sources of Japanese Tradition, Volume 2, (pp. 139-140). New York: Columbia University Press.
Japan. (August 1941). The Way of the Subject. Retrieved 19 March 2016 from http://www.willamette.edu/~rloftus/H381WaySubjects.html
Kuroda, T. (1981). Shintō in the History of Japanese Religion. Journal of Japanese Studies, 7/1, 1-21.
Lange, M. (April 10, 2014). The ‘Basic Bitch’: Who Is She? NYMag.com. Retrieved 17 January 2016 from http://nymag.com/thecut/2014/04/basic-bitch-who-is-she.html
Lu, D. C. (1996.) Japan: A Documentary History. The Late Tokugawa Period to the Present. Routledge.
May, H. (2000). Murders’ relatives: managing stigma negotiating identity. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, Vol. 29, No. 2, 199-221.
NHK and ISSP (International Social Survey Programme). (2009) . “Shūkyōteki na mono” ni hikareru nihonjin – ISSP kokusai hikaku chōsa (shūkyō) kara ~ “宗教的なもの”にひ か れる日本人～ISSP 国 際 比 較 調 査 (宗教) から～[Japanese people that are drawn to the religious—From the ISSP National comparative study of religion]. Retrieved 1 October 2015 from http://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/summary/research/report/2009_05/090505.pdf
Nishi, T. (1982). Unconditional Democracy: Education and Politics in Occupied Japan 1945-1952. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press.
Noack, R. (2015). Map: These Are the World’s Least Religious Countries. In Washington Post 14th April, 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/04/14/map-these-are-the-worlds-least-religious-countries/
Okuyama, M. (2012). “Civil Religion” in Japan? Rethinking the arguments and their complications. Religious Studies in Japan, Volume 1, 61-77.
Pye, M. (1996). Shinto, primal religion and international identity. Marburg Journal of Religion, Vol. 1, No.1. Retrieved 18 January 2016 from https://www.uni-marburg.de/fb03/ivk/mjr/pdfs/1996/articles/shinto1996.pdf
Reader, I. (2001). Identity and nationalism in the ‘new’ new religions: Buddhism as a motif for the new age in Japan. In K. Antoni, H. Kubota, J. Nawrocki, & M. Wachukta, (Eds.). Religion and National Identity in the Japanese Context, (pp. 13-37). Lit. Verlag Munster.
Robertson, R. (2009). “Globalisation, theocratization, and politicised civil religion.” In P. B. Clarke, (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Religion, (pp. 451-477). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stafford, M. C. & Scott R. R. (1986). Stigma deviance and social control: some conceptual issues. In S. C. Ainlay, G. Becker, L. M. Coleman, (Ed.), The Dilemma of Difference, (pp. 77-91). New York:Pelnum.
Stiles, K. (1996). Shaved heads and marked bodies: representations from cultures of trauma. In J. O'Barr, N. Hewitt, N. Rosebaugh (Eds.), Talking Gender: Public Images, Personal Journeys, and Political Critiques (pp. 36-64). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J. & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 43: 379-440.
Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. (1986). The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behaviour. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
Theodore, D. B., Dykstra, Y. K., Bodiford, W. M., Elisonas, J. S., & Yampolsky, P. B. (2001). Sources of Japanese tradition. New York: Columbia University Press
Takayama, K. P. (1993). The revitalization of Japanese civil religion. In M. R. Mullins, S. Susumu, & P. L. Swanson, (Eds.), Religion and Society in Modern Japan, (pp. 105–20). Berkeley, California: Asian Humanities Press.
Tsuchiya, Y. (2002). Imagined America in Occupied Japan: (Re-)Educational Films Shown by the U.S. Occupation Forces to the Japanese, 1948–1952. The Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 13, 193-213.
Wajikan. (2015). Jizen manbutsu ni shinsama ga yadoru to kangaeta nihonjin tokubetsu no shūkyōkan to sayorozu no kami. 自然万物に神様が宿ると考えた日本人特別の宗教観と八百万の神. [Innumerable gods and the Japanese people’s special religious concept that holds that gods inhabit everything in nature]. Retrieved 15 November 2015 from http://wajikan.com/note/yaoyorozu/
Woodard, W. P. (1972). The Allied Occupation of Japan 1945-1952 and Japanese Religions. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
読売新聞 Yomiuri Shinbun [The Yomiuri Newspaper]. 2008. Nenkan Renzoku Kensa. Nihonjin (6) Shūkyōkan. 2008 Nen 5 Gatsu Kensa (Mensetsu Hōshiki)「年間連続調査・日本人 (6)宗教観」 2008年5月調査（面接方式） [ A year on through continuous investigation of the Japanese concept of religion. No. 6. 05/2008. An investigation using interview methods]. Retrieved 16 February 2016 from http://www.rikkyo.ne.jp/web/msato/ReligAnth/Religion%20of%20the%20Japanese2008.pdf
Atsusaka, M. 阿津坂光子. (2015). Nihonjin no shūkyōkan, kaigai to chigau kedo henjanai? Beimedia ga sagaru nihonjin no kokorone. 日本人の宗教観、海外と違うけど変じゃない？米メディアが探る日本人の心根. [The Japanese people’s understanding of religion is different but strange? The nature of Japanese people that is searched by American media.] Retrieved 19 March 2016 from http://newsphere.jp/national/20150922-1/
Antoni, K., Kubota H., Nawrocki, J., & Wachukta, M. (2001). Religion and National Identity in the Japanese Context. Lit Verlag Munster.
Aronson, J. M., Lustina, M. J., Good, G. Keough, K., Steele, C. M., & Brown, J. When white men can't do maths: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1): 29-46.
Atkinson, R. (2015). Viewpoint: Is it time to stop using the word "disability"? BBC: Ouch Blog. Retrieved 16 March 2016 from http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-ouch-34385738
BBC News. (1 February, 2013). AKB48 Pop Stars Shaved Head After Breaking Band Rules. Retrieved 15 January 2016 from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-21299324
Chamberlain, B. H. (2013). The Invention of a New Religion. Retrieved 23 February 2016 from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2510/2510-h/2510-h.htm
Cristi, M. & Dawson, L. L. (2007). Civil religion in America and in global context. In J. A. Beckford and N. I. Demerath, (Eds.). The SAGE Handbook of the Sociology of Religion, (pp. 267-294). London: Sage Publications.
Crocker, J. & Major, B. (1989). Social Stigma and Self-Esteem: The Self Protective Properties of Stigma. Psychological Review. Vol. 96, No. 4, 608-630.
Dower, J. W. 2000. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. W. W. Norton and Company.
Duke, B. C. (2009). The History of Modern Japanese Education: Constructing the National School System, 1872-1890. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Editorial Staff (Ed.). (1965). Reminiscences of Religion in Postwar Japan. Contemporary Religions in Japan, Vol VI, No. 3. Retrieved 15 March 2016 from https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/3153
Elgin, C. (1983). With Reference to Reference. Indiana and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.
Es Discovery. (2011). Shintō to jinja no shisetsu. 神道と神社の施設. [Institutions of Shintō and Shrines]. Retrieved 15 December 2015 from http://www5f.biglobe.ne.jp/~mind/vision/es003/jshrine001.html
Fitzgerald, T. (2003). ‘Religion’ and the ‘Secular’ in Japan: Problems in History, Social Anthropology and the Study of Religion. EJCJS. Retrieved 17 March 2016 from http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/Fitzgerald.html
GHK (December 1945). The Shintō Directive. Retrieved 4 January 2016 from http://www.trinity.edu/rnadeau/Asian%20Religions/Lecture%20Notes/Shinto%20and%20Zen/Shinto%20state.htm
Goodman, N. (1976). Languages of Art. Indiana and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. London: Penguin.
Ives. C. (2009). Imperial-Way Zen: Ichikawa Hakugen's Critique and Lingering Questions for Buddhist Ethics. Hawaii: Hawaii University Press.
Ise Shrine. (2011). Ise City Travel Guide. Retrieved 08 March 2016 from http://www.ise-kanko.jp/english/index.html
Izumo-ooyashiro Murasakino Kyokai. (2015). Shintō ni oshe wa nai no ka? 神道に教えはないか？[Aren't there Shintō teachings?] Retrieved 1 January 2016 from www.izumo-murasakino.jp/shinto-001.html
Japan. (1890). Imperial Rescript on Education 1890. In T. de Bary, T., D. Keene, & R. Tsunoda, (Eds.), Sources of Japanese Tradition, Volume 2, (pp. 139-140). New York: Columbia University Press.
Japan. (August 1941). The Way of the Subject. Retrieved 19 March 2016 from http://www.willamette.edu/~rloftus/H381WaySubjects.html
Kuroda, T. (1981). Shintō in the History of Japanese Religion. Journal of Japanese Studies, 7/1, 1-21.
Lange, M. (April 10, 2014). The ‘Basic Bitch’: Who Is She? NYMag.com. Retrieved 17 January 2016 from http://nymag.com/thecut/2014/04/basic-bitch-who-is-she.html
Lu, D. C. (1996.) Japan: A Documentary History. The Late Tokugawa Period to the Present. Routledge.
May, H. (2000). Murders’ relatives: managing stigma negotiating identity. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, Vol. 29, No. 2, 199-221.
NHK and ISSP (International Social Survey Programme). (2009) . “Shūkyōteki na mono” ni hikareru nihonjin – ISSP kokusai hikaku chōsa (shūkyō) kara ~ “宗教的なもの”にひ か れる日本人～ISSP 国 際 比 較 調 査 (宗教) から～[Japanese people that are drawn to the religious—From the ISSP National comparative study of religion]. Retrieved 1 October 2015 from http://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/summary/research/report/2009_05/090505.pdf
Nishi, T. (1982). Unconditional Democracy: Education and Politics in Occupied Japan 1945-1952. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press.
Noack, R. (2015). Map: These Are the World’s Least Religious Countries. In Washington Post 14th April, 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/04/14/map-these-are-the-worlds-least-religious-countries/
Okuyama, M. (2012). “Civil Religion” in Japan? Rethinking the arguments and their complications. Religious Studies in Japan, Volume 1, 61-77.
Pye, M. (1996). Shinto, primal religion and international identity. Marburg Journal of Religion, Vol. 1, No.1. Retrieved 18 January 2016 from https://www.uni-marburg.de/fb03/ivk/mjr/pdfs/1996/articles/shinto1996.pdf
Reader, I. (2001). Identity and nationalism in the ‘new’ new religions: Buddhism as a motif for the new age in Japan. In K. Antoni, H. Kubota, J. Nawrocki, & M. Wachukta, (Eds.). Religion and National Identity in the Japanese Context, (pp. 13-37). Lit. Verlag Munster.
Robertson, R. (2009). “Globalisation, theocratization, and politicised civil religion.” In P. B. Clarke, (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Religion, (pp. 451-477). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stafford, M. C. & Scott R. R. (1986). Stigma deviance and social control: some conceptual issues. In S. C. Ainlay, G. Becker, L. M. Coleman, (Ed.), The Dilemma of Difference, (pp. 77-91). New York:Pelnum.
Stiles, K. (1996). Shaved heads and marked bodies: representations from cultures of trauma. In J. O'Barr, N. Hewitt, N. Rosebaugh (Eds.), Talking Gender: Public Images, Personal Journeys, and Political Critiques (pp. 36-64). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J. & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 43: 379-440.
Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. (1986). The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behaviour. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
Theodore, D. B., Dykstra, Y. K., Bodiford, W. M., Elisonas, J. S., & Yampolsky, P. B. (2001). Sources of Japanese tradition. New York: Columbia University Press
Takayama, K. P. (1993). The revitalization of Japanese civil religion. In M. R. Mullins, S. Susumu, & P. L. Swanson, (Eds.), Religion and Society in Modern Japan, (pp. 105–20). Berkeley, California: Asian Humanities Press.
Tsuchiya, Y. (2002). Imagined America in Occupied Japan: (Re-)Educational Films Shown by the U.S. Occupation Forces to the Japanese, 1948–1952. The Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 13, 193-213.
Wajikan. (2015). Jizen manbutsu ni shinsama ga yadoru to kangaeta nihonjin tokubetsu no shūkyōkan to sayorozu no kami. 自然万物に神様が宿ると考えた日本人特別の宗教観と八百万の神. [Innumerable gods and the Japanese people’s special religious concept that holds that gods inhabit everything in nature]. Retrieved 15 November 2015 from http://wajikan.com/note/yaoyorozu/
Woodard, W. P. (1972). The Allied Occupation of Japan 1945-1952 and Japanese Religions. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
読売新聞 Yomiuri Shinbun [The Yomiuri Newspaper]. 2008. Nenkan Renzoku Kensa. Nihonjin (6) Shūkyōkan. 2008 Nen 5 Gatsu Kensa (Mensetsu Hōshiki)「年間連続調査・日本人 (6)宗教観」 2008年5月調査（面接方式） [ A year on through continuous investigation of the Japanese concept of religion. No. 6. 05/2008. An investigation using interview methods]. Retrieved 16 February 2016 from http://www.rikkyo.ne.jp/web/msato/ReligAnth/Religion%20of%20the%20Japanese2008.pdf
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28/05/2016
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Malik, L. (2016). The Stigmatisation of Religion in Japan and the Response to It. Journal of the Sociology and Theory of Religion, 4(1). Recuperado a partir de https://revistas.uva.es/index.php/socireli/article/view/695
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